EDITORIAL SERIES - PART 2

PART 2 – What types of nuclear reactor are there? SMR’s are not available yet !

Before we go too far with this, let’s understand firstly that Australia currently requires around 32GW of electricity output per day to power our homes, industry and agriculture.

Just so you know, when we talk about nuclear power, we generally use 2 terms:

Gigawatt-electric (GWe): One billion watts of electric capacity.

Gigawatthour (GWh): One billion watt hours.

Lower power outputs are usually in MW (megawatts). 1GW=1,000MW.

There are a number of other units of power measurement used which only cause confusion so we will stick with MW (mega/million watts) and GW (billion watts).

To give you an idea, the 2021-22 electricity generation by fuel type in GWh was:

                                                            Share               Growth

            Fossil Fuels      187,536           69.1%              -3.7%

            Renewables       83,996           30.9%              18.6%

2022 Total:      271,532 GWh / 365 = 743.9 GWh /day

Therefore 743.9 GWh/day = 31 GW power output

Our research shows us that there are around 20 different types of nuclear reactor around so here’s a brief summary of what we know:

1. ACP100 (China)

Design of the ACP100 started in 2010 and it became the first SMR project of its kind to be approved by the International Atomic Energy Agency in 2016 China has commenced construction of a 125MWe output pressurised water reactor (PWR).

2. ARC-100: US/Japan

The ARC-100 is a 100 MWe sodium cooled, fast-flux, pool-type reactor with metallic fuel based on the 30-year successful operation of the Experimental Breeder Reactor II in Idaho. 

3. CAREM: Argentina

INVAP, CAREM is a simplified pressurized water reactor (PWR) designed to have electrical output of 100 MW or 25 MW. It is an integral reactor – the primary system coolant circuit is fully contained within the reactor vessel.

4. Copenhagen Atomics: Denmark

The Copenhagen Atomics Waste Burner is a single-fluid, heavy water moderated, fluoride-based, thermal spectrum and autonomously controlled molten salt reactor. This is designed to fit inside of a leak-tight, 40-foot, stainless steel shipping container.

5. Elysium Industries

Elysium's design, called the Molten Chloride Salt, Fast Reactor (MCSFR), is a fast-spectrum reactor meaning the majority of fissions are caused by high-energy (fast) neutrons.

6. Encapsulated Nuclear Heat Source (ENHS): United States

ENHS is a liquid metal reactor (LMR) that uses lead (Pb) or lead–bismuth (Pb–Bi) coolant. Pb has a higher boiling point than the other commonly used coolant metal, sodium, and is chemically inert with air and water. The difficulty is finding structural materials that will be compatible with the Pb or Pb–Bi coolant, especially at high temperatures. The ENHS uses natural circulation for the coolant and the turbine steam, eliminating the need for pumps. However, the reactor vessel weighs 300 tons with the coolant inside, and that can pose some transportation difficulties.

7. Flibe Energy: United States

Flibe Energy is a US-based company established to design, construct and operate small modular reactors based on liquid fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR) technology (a type of molten salt reactor). The name "Flibe" comes from FLiBe, a Fluoride salt of Lithium and Beryllium, used in LFTRs. Initially 20–50 MW (electric) version will be developed, to be followed by 100 MWe "utility-class reactors" at a later time.

8. HTR-PM: China

The HTR-PM is a high-temperature gas-cooled (HTGR) pebble-bed generation IV reactor partly based on the earlier HTR-10 prototype reactor.[61] The reactor unit has a thermal capacity of 250 MW, and two reactors are connected to a single steam turbine to generate 210 MW of electricity.

9. Hyperion Power Module (HPM): United States

A commercial version of a Los Alamos National Laboratory project, the Hyperion Power Module (HPM) is a LMR that uses a Pb–Bi coolant. It has an output of 25 MWe, and less than 20% 235 U enrichment. The reactor is a sealed vessel, which is brought to the site intact and removed intact for refueling at the factory, reducing proliferation dangers. Each module weighs less than 50 tons. It has both active and passive safety features.

10. Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR): Canada

The IMSR Plant is a 2x195 MWe / 2x442 MWt SMR plant design being developed by Terrestrial Energy[67] based in Oakville, Canada. The reactor is proprietary molten salt reactor design that builds on two existing designs: the Denatured Molten Salt Reactor (DMSR) and Small Modular Advanced High Temperature Reactor (smAHRT). Both designs are from Oak Ridge National Laboratory.

11. International Reactor Innovative & Secure (IRIS): United States

Developed by an international consortium led by Westinghouse and the nuclear energy research initiative (NERI), IRIS-50 is a modular PWR with a generation capacity of 50 MWe. It uses natural circulation for the coolant. The fuel is a uranium oxide with 5% enrichment of 235 U that can run for five years between refueling.

12. Modified KLT-40: Russia

Based on the design of nuclear power supplies for Russian icebreakers, the modified KLT-40 uses a proven, commercially available PWR system. The coolant system relies on forced circulation of pressurized water during regular operation, although natural convection is usable in emergencies. The fuel may be enriched to above 20%, the limit for low-enriched uranium, which may pose non-proliferation problems. Refueling is required every two to three years.

13. mPower: United States

The mPower from Babcock & Wilcox (B&W) is an integrated PWR SMR. The nuclear steam supply systems (NSSS) for the reactor arrive at the site already assembled, and so require very little construction. Each reactor module would produce around 180 MWe, and could be linked together to form the equivalent of one large nuclear power plant. A Tennessee development project commenced in 2013 was terminated in 2017.

14. NuScale: United States

The NuScale is a light water reactor (LWR), with 235 U fuel enrichment of less than 5%. It has a two-year refueling period. The Nuclear Regulatory Commission issued a final safety evaluation report on the earlier 50 MWe NuScale SMR design in August 2020, approving of the safety measures and permitting NuScale to continue the next phase of their design process.

15. OPEN100: United States

OPEN100 is an SMR project developed by the Energy Impact Center that has published the first open-source blueprints for a 100 MWe pressurized water reactor. The project is intended to standardize the construction of nuclear power plants to cut down on cost and duration. In 2021 Nigeria agreed to an OPEN100 reactor project.

[16. Pebble Bed Modular Reactor (PBMR): South Africa]

The Pebble Bed Modular Reactor (PBMR) is a modernized version of a design first proposed in the 1950s and deployed in the 1960s in Germany. It uses spherical fuel elements coated with graphite and silicon carbide filled with up to 10,000 TRISO particles, which contain uranium dioxide (UO2) and appropriate passivation and safety layers. South Africa terminated funding for the development of the PBMR in 2010 and postponed the project indefinitely.

17. Purdue Novel Modular Reactor (NMR): United States

Based on the Economic Simplified Boiling Water Reactor designs by General Electric (GE), the NMR is a natural circulation SMR with an electric output of 50 MWe. The NMR has a much shorter Reactor Pressure Vessel compared to conventional BWRs. The coolant steam drives the turbines directly, eliminating the need for a steam generator. It uses natural circulation, so there are no coolant pumps.

18. PWR-20: United States

Last Energy is a full-service developer of small modular nuclear power projects with a goal of transforming the nuclear power industry by dramatically reducing the time and cost of construction.

The company’s first product, the PWR-20 is a fully-modular SMR with all modules fitting inside of a standard shipping container. It uses pressurized water reactor (PWR) technology providing 20 MWe and is air-cooled. With its ability to be sited away from a water source and a footprint approximately the size of a football field it is targeted towards distributed energy users.

The company says it will cost under $100 million and be deployed in approximately 24 months. Recently Last Energy announced $19 Billion worth of deals in Europe after constructing their demonstration unit in Texas.

19. Gas Turbine Modular Helium Reactor (GTMHR): United States

The Gas Turbine Modular Helium Reactor (GTMHR) is a General Atomics project. It is a helium gas cooled reactor. The reactor is contained in one vessel, with all of the coolant and heat transfer equipment enclosed in a second vessel, attached to the reactor by a single coaxial line for coolant flow. The plant is a four-story, entirely above-ground building with a 10–25 MWe output.

20. Rolls-Royce SMR

Rolls-Royce is preparing a close-coupled three-loop PWR design, sometimes called the UK SMR. The power output was originally planned to be 440 MWe, later increased to 470 MWe, which is above the usual range considered to be a SMR. A modular forced draft cooling tower will be used. The design targets a 500 day construction time, on a 10 acres (4 ha) site. Overall build time is expected to be four years, two years for site preparation and two years for construction and commissioning. The target cost is £1.8 billion for the fifth unit built. After a lengthy and costly design phase, they expect the first unit will be completed in the early 2030s.

21. Super Safe, Small & Simple (4S): Japan

Designed by the Central Research Institute of Electric Power Industry (CRIEPI), the Toshiba 4S is an extremely modular design, fabricated in a factory and requiring very little construction on-site. It is a sodium (Na) cooled reactor, using a U–Zr or U–Pu–Zr fuel. The design relies on a moveable neutron reflector to maintain a steady state power level for anywhere from 10 to 30 years. The liquid metal coolant allows the use of electro-magnetic (EM) pumps, with natural circulation used in emergencies.

22. Stable Salt Reactor (SSR): United Kingdom

The stable salt reactor (SSR) is a nuclear reactor design proposed by Moltex Energy. It represents a breakthrough in molten salt reactor technology, with the potential to make nuclear power safer, cheaper and cleaner. The SSR wasteburning variant SSR-W, rated at 300 MWe, is currently progressing through the Vendor Design Review (VDR) with the Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission (CNSC).

[23. Traveling Wave Reactor (TWR): United States]

Intellectual Ventures' TerraPower team came up with the idea that the slow breeding and burning of fuel would move through the core for 50 to 100 years without needing to be stopped, so long as plenty of fertile 238 U is supplied.

So far, the reactor only exists in theory, the only testing done with computer simulations.

24. VOYGR: United States

NuScale Power is the only SMR manufacturer currently licensed by the NRC. Its VOYGR SMR plant is a very "modular" system designed to easily scale from small to medium commercial applications. The VOYGR relies on light water and works individually or in concert as teams of up to 12 modules. Its maximum output for one module is 77 MWe. As a 12-module system, the VOYGR delivers up to 924 MWe. Plant refueling is required once every 12 years. NuScale is credited with the invention of the SMR, along with researchers at Oregon State University.

25. Westinghouse SMR and AP300

The Westinghouse SMR design is a scaled down version of the AP1000 reactor, designed to generate 225 MWe. After losing a second time in December 2013 for funding through the U.S. Department of Energy's SMR commercialization program, and citing "no customers" for SMR technology, Westinghouse announced in January 2014 that it is backing off from further development of the company's SMR. Westinghouse staff devoted to SMR development was "reprioritized" to the company's AP1000.

On 4 May 2023 Westinghouse announced the AP300, which is a 300 MWe, single-loop pressurized water reactor based on the AP1000. Design certification is anticipated by 2027, followed by site specific licensing and construction on the first unit toward the end of the decade.

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As we can see, Dutton has NO SMR options available to him – so why shoot his big mouth off about them? Also, as shown in the above list, any SMR designs are way too small to be of any real value or way too far off into the future. To generate 32GW a day, and with SMR’s only producing 300MW maximum, it would take a large number of SMR’s at enormous cost, extremely lengthy build times and lengthy design and planning lead times to achieve anything useful – and we sure as hell couldn’t implement anything worthwhile in under 25 years!

GB / AB